INTRODUCTION
The current food industry as a whole, and dairy
industry in particular, fits in the 5th technological
paradigm, which is based on biotechnology with relics of
the 4th (electricity) and the 3d (mechanics) technological
paradigms [1]. The 6th technological paradigm will
supposedly originate from the current 5th paradigm in
2025 [1–5]. The possible start date corresponds with
Decree No. 350 issued by the President of the Russian
Federation on July 21, 2016. The Decree is entitled ‘On
the Administration of State Science and Technology
Policy for the Development of Agriculture’. It defines
2025 as the year by which raw milk production will have
increased by 40%. The provisions were further specified
in the Presidential Decree ‘On the national goals and
strategic objectives of the development of the Russian
Federation for the period up to 2024’ (May 7, 2018).
According to Paragraph 7, almost all sectors of Russian
economy are to transform to the principles of the best
available technologies (BAT) by 2024.
Dairy production is an essential component of
the food industry of the historically established agroindustrial
sector, i.e. the milk production – dairy
products – sales chain. For the new technological
paradigm to take power in the current Russian dairy
industry, it needs an upgrade [6, 7]. The prospective
upgrade is directly related to ensuring food security and
independence of the country and its regions [8].
STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODS
The research featured the paradigm of dairy raw
materials, which was tested in the dairy industry on the
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Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2
E-ISSN 2310-9599
ISSN 2308-4057
292
Khramtsov A.G. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 291–300
level of Technological Platform formation. The system
analysis involved the convergence methodology with
elements of the cognitive approach as developed by the
Russian Academy of Sciences [4].
Table 1 shows a comparative analysis of raw milk
composition, cream excluded, which resulted from
mechanical and biotechnological processing.
Skimmed, or rather low-fat, milk and buttermilk are
protein-carbohydrate raw materials and have 50% of
solids. Whey is a carbohydrate raw material with 70%
of solids. Proteins, lipids (milk fat), and carbohydrates
(lactose) are the main and most valuable constituents
of the secondary dairy raw materials. In addition to
the main constituents, skimmed milk, buttermilk,
and whey also contain mineral salts, non-protein
nitrogenous compounds, vitamins, enzymes, hormones,
immune bodies, organic acids, etc. It means that almost
all components of milk solids can be utilised, even
biologically synthesized water with its memory and
fullerenes-kenotrons.
Table 2 provides data on the degree of transition of
dairy constituents into dairy protein-carbohydrate raw
materials, or secondary dairy raw materials, as defined
by the Technological Regulations.
Skimmed milk and buttermilk contain almost the
entire protein, carbohydrate, and mineral complex
of milk and up to 15% of milk fat. Whey contains
carbohydrate complex, proteins, and mineral salts. These
data should be taken into account during identification,
examination, and industrial processing of secondary
dairy raw materials.
Table 3 shows the sizes of the structures of the main
constituents of dairy raw material.
Dairy raw materials contain all types of structural
systems: ions, molecules, colloids, suspensions, and
emulsions.
In the Russian Federation, the annual processing
volume of dairy raw materials is 30–33 million tons. It
means that secondary raw materials are estimated as
20 million tons, which is a huge reserve and available
resources for the industrial upgrade. This especially
concerns new-generation functional products branded by
Prof. Petrovsky as ‘minimum of calories – maximum of
biological value’ [9].
A long-term systematic analysis allowed the team
of the North Caucasus Federal University (federal
scientific school ‘Living Systems’ No.7510.2010.4) to
offer a scheme that can help the domestic diary industry
to adapt safely to the new technological paradigm.
The scheme takes into account various factors, such as
limited traditional dairy resources (< 50%), Russia’s
accession to the WTO, and the globalisation of the
world dairy market. The generalised scheme has nine
fundamental principles, or blocks, and was published
in [10]. The principles cover the whole range of dairy
production from dairy raw materials to the problems
of the international dairy industry, including the
organisation of alternative off-season productions. This
paper introduces the concept of the second principle,
which involves the scaling of innovative, sustainable
biological nanomembrane ‘high-tech’ technologies for
industrial processing of dairy raw materials with the
complete production cycle [11, 12].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Logistically, dairy industry should implement a zerowaste
production scheme that observes the following
principle: waste milk is nothing but unused reserves [13].
It was 30–50 years ago that the so-called recycling
plants appeared in the global dairy industry. They
played a positive economic and social role: they brought
in profit, gave workers two days-off, and protected the
environment. For example, all large cheese-making
Table 1 Content of the main constituents in dairy raw
materials, g/100 g
Constituents Whole
milk
Skimmed
milk
Buttermilk Milk
whey
Milk fat 3.7 0.05 0.5 0.2
Proteins 3.3 3.3 3.3 0.9
Lactose 4.8 4.8 4.7 4.8
Mineral salts 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6
Solids 12.5 8.8 9.1 6.5
Table 2 Degree of transition of the main dairy constituents
into the secondary dairy raw materials
Milk constituents
(100%)
Degree of transition, %
Skimmed
milk
Buttermilk Milk
whey
Milk fat 1.4 14.0 5.5
Total protein, including 99.6 99.4 24.3
Casein 99.5 99.5 22.5
Whey proteins 99.8 99.6 95.0
Lactose 99.5 99.4 96.0
Mineral salts 99.8 99.6 98.0
Solids 70.4 72.8 52.0
Table 3 Dispersed composition of dairy clusters
Milk constituents Size of the
molecule or
particle, nm
Volume of the
molecule or
particle, %
Water 0.1–0.2 90.10
Fat 200–10000 4.20
Casein 40–300 2.30
α-Lactoglobulin 5–20 0.30
Β-Lactoglobulin 25–50 0.08
Milk sugar (lactose) 1.0–1.5 3.02
Mineral salts 0.1–1.0 0.10
BAS 0.1–100.0 0.01
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Khramtsov A.G. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 291–300
factories are to have skimmed milk and whey drying
stations. According to the new approach to this problem,
dairy constituents are to be obtained from the original
milk. Raw materials of plant and animal origin are
to be combined to produce such functional products
(bioproducts) as pro-, pre-, and synbiotics. In addition,
a significant amount of secondary dairy raw materials
(milk protein-carbohydrate raw materials) enters the socalled
technological cycle. As a result, the industry loses
a great deal of skimmed milk, low-fat milk, buttermilk,
and especially milk whey, which is responsible for half
of the solids of the original raw material, while polluting
water sources [14].
To update the dairy industry by implementing
modern innovations, the dairy technology platform
has to be revised with subsequent access to the new
technological paradigm [1, 15, 16]. In the nearest
future, the industry will have to comprehend and
implement the large-scale high-tech options. According
to Metz [11, 17, 18], the 5th technological paradigm will
include food nanotechnology [19] with biomembrane
and baromembrane processes aimed at the clusters
of dairy constituents with the use of information and
communication technologies. The European Economic
Community set up the first European Institute for Food
Industry (EU-IFP) (http://www.hightecheurope.com).
It has three branches: Biotechnology (BIOTECH),
Nanotechnology (NANOTECH), and Information and
Communication Technology (ICTECH) [20].
On the industrial level, the innovative priorities of
technological upgrade have the following principles.
Epistemologically, all dairy raw materials – whole
and skimmed (low-fat) milk, cream, buttermilk, and
whey – are constantly renewable resources. Therefore,
the food obtained from them can be viewed upon as
objects of rapidly developing nanotechnology. Hence,
their constituents at the molecular level should be
considered as naturally synthesized clusters of simple
(molecules, atoms) or complex (micelles, aggregates,
particles) compounds [20]. The cluster structure of
the main components of dairy raw materials creates
prerequisites for directional and controlled modelling,
i.e. bio-technology in the 5th technological paradigm and
picotechnology in the 6th.
Similarly, from the point of view of the natureformed
biotechnological system, all components of
dairy raw materials can be considered as natural
clusters – lipids (fat), nitrogen (proteins), carbohydrates
(lactose), minerals (salt), biologically active substances,
and water. As an idealised model of agricultural raw
material, milk is extremely complex. Its chemical
composition includes more than 2000 constituents and
100000 molecular structures. In addition, dairy
architectonics is also extremely complex: it includes
suspension, emulsion, and solution. Finally, milk
possesses unusual physicochemical, osmophoric,
structural-mechanical, bio-thermodynamic, and other
characteristics.
Milk as a biotechnological system provides newborn
mammals with nutrients and can serve as a basis
for next-generation high-grade foods. According to
its physical and chemical properties, its active acidity
and osmotic pressure are close to the nutriciology of
mammals. Thus, it can be of practical importance that
proteins, milk sugar, and mineral salts increase the
density of dairy raw materials, while milk fat reduces it.
As a biotechnological system, dairy raw materials
illustrate the opinion voiced by the great Russian
physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Pavlov: ‘milk is an
amazing food prepared by nature itself.’ Structurally,
this is a heterogeneous system in the form of a solution
intended for direct (oral) use. It has a sufficiently high
content of solids, particles (milk fat in the form of
suspension or emulsion), colloids (proteins and mineral
compounds), and a molecular solution (lactose, mineral
salts, and BAS). Milks obtained from sheep, goats,
mares, camels, and buffalos differ from cow’s milk
as a complex biotechnological system. This should be
considered in industrial processing. The same applies to
their secondary dairy raw materials, e.g. skimmed milk,
buttermilk, and whey [23].
In 2007, we introduced the concept, or doctrine, of
nano-, bio-, membrane, and biomembrane technologies
to implement this principle. The concept was published
in food industry journals and tested at food industry
seminars and international summits in 2008, 2009, 2011,
2015, and 2016. Apparently, it can serve as an alternative
basis for the industry upgrade [24].
The fundamental paradigm of nano-food technology
in the dairy business can be confirmed by the processes
of synthesis of lactose derivatives [25, 26]. For instance,
the biological nanotechnology of lactose hydrolysis
produces two monoses from lactose disaccharide
(1 nm), i.e. glucose and galactose with a size of
0.5 nm. This solves the problem of milk intolerance.
The Stavropolsky Dairy Plant (Stavropol, Russia) used
this unique procedure to obtain marketable low-lactose
milk under the Healthy City programme. The globally
famous synthesis of lactulose at the proton level, which
is pure nanotechnology, is the pride of the industry and
has proved to be extremely profitable [27]. Lactulose
is known to be the best prebiotic, a bifidobacteria
promoter, and an ideal natural laxative. A research in its
production and implementation was awarded the Prize
of the Russian Federation Government on Science and
Technology in 2002.
The last decade has seen a fundamentally new
direction of dairy nanotechnology: whey proteins are
microparticulated into nanotubes that imitate the flavour
of milk fat [28]. The industry has already mastered the
logistics for the formation of microgranules (nanotubes)
of whey proteins from the so-called ‘albumin milk’.
Such products are well known abroad under the
Simplesse brand [23]. This innovation has also been
implemented in Russia [12, 29].
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Biotechnology of dairy products is historically
associated with pure cultures of microorganisms in the
form of starter cultures and enzymatic catalysis that are
used to obtain such fermented milk products as sour
cream, cheese, cottage cheese, and dairy beverages.
High-biotech solutions have a long history in the
domestic industry. Sour cream is known as traditional
‘Russian cream’; sour clotted milk is a Russian
biocenosis; kefir is traditionally favoured by the
centenarians from the Caucasus; yogurts, or ‘dairy
ferments’ were introduced by the famous Russian Nobel
Prize winner Mechnikov as part of lactotherapy, etc.
Such elements of superbiotechnologies as enzymatic
catalysis and microbial synthesis have long been part
of centuries-old cheese-making procedures. Unique
biotechnologies of dairy industry are as sophisticated
as the finest surgical operations and require the same
disinfection measures. Some of them can be adapted
to obtain starter cultures in controlled fermentation
procedures for silage making, sauerkraut production,
meat industry, as well as in medicine and veterinary.
According to Luff, the ‘life code’ that nature and
bionanotechnology give to industrially processed whey
provides people with immune protection against many
diseases, including various flu strain [23, 30]. As for
milk lactose, Canadian veterinarian De Lookk called it
the ‘saviour of mankind’ because it can prevent and treat
salmonellosis [31].
One of the most promising biotech solutions in
the dairy industry is the production of derivatives of
the nitrogen-containing milk complex, namely casein
and whey proteins. It deserves special consideration.
It involves two separation methods: hydrolysis
and proteolysis. Casein hydrolysis is well-studied
and globally implemented, e.g. in pharmacy. Its
biotechnology is based on the proteolysis of caseins
in cheese, which determines the type and quality
of products. The hydrolysis of whey proteins is of
particular importance in the biomedical aspect since
it is used in infant formulae, as well as in dietary and
therapeutic nutrition.
The amino acid composition of whey proteins is
believed to be closest to human muscle tissue [32]. They
exceed all other animal and vegetable proteins according
to the content of essential amino acids and branchedchain
amino acids (BCAA), e.g. valine, leucine, and
isoleucine. According to the FAO/WHO, the biological
value of albumin and globulin, which are the main
whey proteins, exceeds the ideal 100 cu ascribed to
eggs. It amounts to 104 cu, which is twice as high as
the biological value of wheat. This corresponds with
the traditional Russian proverb that bread and milk are
the best food. The digestibility of whey proteins is 98%,
which is extremely high. Table 4 illustrates the data on
the content of some essential amino acids according to
the scale used by the FAO/WHO and their presence in
whey proteins.
Numerous peptides and amino acids are extremely
important for human health, especially those natural
polypeptide chains that can be found in dairy raw
materials. They can also be obtained artificially from
casein fractions and polypeptide chains of whey
proteins. For instance, exomorphins are natural
painkillers. They regulate the general endocrine
profile of mammals and produce a soothing effect
on cubs. As for β-casomorphins, they are excellent
immunomodulators. ‘Dairy peptides’ increase the
phagocytic activity of certain gastrointestinal bacteria,
thus ensuring resistance to infectious diseases. For
example, the Institute of Biophysics (Siberian Branch
of the Russian Academy of Sciences) has synthesized
lactoptin, an analogue of breast milk low molecular
weight peptide. It possesses antitumor and antimetastatic
properties and is absolutely safe [33]. Angiogenin
(Milkang) is beneficial for blood vessels and heals
wounds and burns [34]. Unfortunately, the issue remains
largely understudied.
The process is extremely complex, and its results
can be implemented in various ways. One can mention
the studies of phenylketonuria performed at the
Kemerovo Institute of Technology (University) [35]. The
proprietary technology of obtaining biologically active
peptides from milk proteins has been implemented on
an industrial scale in England. The Molvest company
(Voronezh, Russia) has started to produce dairy products
with reduced antigenicity using the controlled hydrolysis
of β-globulin into peptides. The technology was
developed by the combined efforts of A. Bach Research
Institute, the Russian Academy of Sciences, the
Interindustry Scientific Center of the Siberian Research
Institute of Mining Geomechanics and Surveying
and the Voronezh State University of Engineering
Technologies [36].
Baromembrane technology makes it possible to
separate high molecular weight polydisperse liquid
systems, as shown in Fig. 1. It has been adapted to
dairy raw materials, especially ultrafiltration and
electrodialysis [37, 38].
Figure 2 shows installations that use baromembrane
methods of molecular sieve separation of whey.
Table 4 Content of essential amino acids
Amino acids Content, g/100 g of protein
FAO/WHO
scale
Whey proteins
Isoleucine 4. 0 6.2
Leucine 7.0 12.3
Lysine 5.5 9.1
Methionine + Cystine 3.5 5.7
Phenylalanine + Tyrosine 6.0 8.2
Threonine 4.0 5.2
Tryptophan 1.0 2.2
Valine 5.0 8.7
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Figure 1 Diagrams of baromembrane separation of
constituents of dairy raw materials: RO – reverse osmosis,
NF – nanofiltration, UF – ultrafiltration, MF – microfiltration
Figure 2 Baromembrane installations for molecular sieve filtration of whey
Membrane process
Pressure, atm
Particle size, μm
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10
F
O
NF
UF
Salts MF
Lactose
Whey
proteins
Casein
Fat
Bacteria
Microfiltration Ultrafiltration
Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis
The illustrations demonstrate the achievements
and prospective scaling of the industry. As for
electroflotation, sorption, desorption, and ion exchange,
they are still under research and are undergoing
experimental testing.
Electrodialysis desalting of whey produces up to
100000 tons annually and increases by 30% each year.
Such a large-scale production has made it possible to
reduce the export of solids, which were purchased from
as far away as Argentina. Now it is a full sub-industry
of dairy production. To demonstrate the process, Figure
3 shows the scheme of electrodialysis and devices of
domestic production.
Biomembrane technology. There has been a
series of long-term case studies performed by Prof.
Molochnikov’s team. The studies were conducted
by the joint efforts of the Institute of Organoelement
Compounds (Moscow) and a number of medical
institutions, such as the Institute of Aviation and Space
Medicine (Moscow), Ministry of Defence, Institute
of Nutrition (USSR Academy of Medical Sciences),
All-Union Scientific Cancer Centre (Moscow).
The researches have made it possible to review and
fundamentally change the approaches to raw milk
processing and the composition and quality of dairy
products [39–42].
The studies employed the biomembrane technology:
an aqueous solution of a polysaccharide, e.g. pectin,
is introduced into milk raw materials, i.e. natural or
condensed skimmed milk, reconstituted milk powder,
or buttermilk. Milk casein is thermodynamically
incompatible with polysaccharide. As a result, casein296
Khramtsov A.G. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2019, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 291–300
containing dairy raw materials spontaneously split into
two liquid fractions – natural casein concentrate (NCC)
and a whey-polysaccharide fraction (WPF). After that,
the two liquid raw materials are separated by gravity
or centrifuged. They are easily combined with the
remaining dairy raw materials. The initial raw materials
can be processed, and no by-products are formed,
which corresponds with the principles of zero-waste
technology with a closed zero-discharge production.
Figure 4 illustrates a hypothetical simulation model
of the interaction between the liquid membrane (a polysaccharide
solution, e.g. pectin) and the main milk
constituents. The system’s stability is modelled
according to the DLVO theory (Derjaguin + Landau +
Verwey + Overbeek) [43].
In general, basic researches in academic institutions
and programme-targeted studies conducted by industry
research institutes on the issue of biomembrane
technology with the Bio-Ton dairy product line give
every reason to revise the existing principles of
production in the dairy industry. This can serve as a
basis for the 6th technological paradigm in accordance
with the principles of the system approach [44]. The
6th technological paradigm presupposes sono- and
(a) (b)
Figure 3 Schematic diagram of whey demineralisation (a) and a module of Istok electrodialysis installation (b)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4 Hypothetical model of the interaction between the liquid membrane and the milk constituents (a); formation of associates
of the first level casein micelles (b)$ and the interaction energy curve according to the DLVO theory (c)
Liquid membrane phase
Functional group
Linear
macromolecules
3D structure
Electrostatics
Osmosis
H-OH
Colloidal
phase
Molecular
solution phase
Hydration
Casein
Ion
exchange
Lactose
Whey Salts
proteins Low-fat milk raw
material
Dehydration
Polysaccharide
Liquid
membrane
Micelle
Can(PO4)m
cluster
Hydratation
shell
Attraction Repulsion
Energy barrier
H
UU min max
Primary well
Secondary well
Membrane pair
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picotechnologies with a full automation under aseptic
conditions, i.e. unmanned technologies.
The abovementioned data make it possible to
imagine the complexity of the problems and their
solutions based on modern genomics, proteomics
(peptidomics), lipidomics, and genetic engineering.
Their practical implementation in the form of
nano-, bio-, membrane, and biomembrane technologies
can shape a fundamentally new dairy science –
LactoOmics [7, 45–48]. The issue has to be considered
separately on the principles of cognitive approach and
convergence methodology within the framework of the
new technological paradigm [49].
The concept was adapted for milk whey, which
was named ‘universal agricultural raw material’ by
Prof. Lipatov [50]. The research team was represented
by members of the Scientific and Educational Centre
‘Membrane BioTechnologies’ and the engineering
BioCentre of the North Caucasus Federal University,
which belong to the scientific school No.7510.2010.4.
The proposed concept of bionomembrane technologies
fully complies with the principles of the 5th technological
paradigm with its high-tech (1985–2025) and creates
real prerequisites for the 6th technological paradigm
(2025–2080). The latter will employ picotechnology
and elements of artificial intelligence (neural networks)
to produce food and fodders of the new generation. The
concept is outlined in a manual for the new generation of
industry professionals [51].
CONCLUSION
On the eve of the 6th technological paradigm and
the BAT principles, the dairy industry as we know it
has to be upgraded [52, 53]. The upgrade will require
tremendous efforts. The principles of LactoOmics listed
in [55] have to be implemented in practice [54]. Only the
fundamental principles of food technology will make
it possible to avoid the tragedies of such manufactured
famines as Holodomor [56–60]. Now that Russia has
joined the WTO, the globalisation of the world dairy
market requires an adequate response.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that the authenticity of the issue
makes any conflict of interests impossible. The research
results were only published in the Bulletin of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, which was mentioned in
the text.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express their deepest gratitude to
Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences I.F.
Gorlov and Professor A.Yu. Prosekov for their
encouragement and advice.
FUNDING
The research topic ‘High-tech production of
lactose in pharmaceutical and food industries’ was
developed together with JSC Stavropolsky Dairy Plant
(AO Molochny Kombinat Stavropolskiy) and financed
by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian
Federation, agreement No. 03.G25.31.0241.
Journals KemSU
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Strategizing: Theory and Practice
Foods and Raw Materials
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Cheese- and buttermaking
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