INTRODUCTION
Russian sparkling wines enjoy a well-deserved
popularity among consumers. Despite the growing
demand, Russia has a shortage of raw materials for their
production. Grapes suitable for sparkling wines can only
be cultivated in certain parts of the country, mainly in
the southern regions. Local agricultural lands have
different forms of ownership and many landowners have
lost interest in grape cultivation due to a long payback
period. Yet, most large producers of sparkling wines do
not have their own source of raw materials and therefore
have to import cheap base wines, often of poor quality.
The long production cycle (over 9 months for the bottle
method) holds back increased production of domestic
sparkling wines. The need to purchase expensive
equipment for pressure operations limits the use of the
acratophoric method by small farms.
The solution is to produce young sparkling wines
(aged 2–3 months) by the bottle method. They can be
made during one wine-making season and delivered to
the consumer by the New Year. The EU countries make
sparkling wine by the ancestral method (la méthode
ancestrale), i.e., incomplete fermentation of grape must
on spontaneous microflora. Fermentation is suspended
by cooling and the stuck must is stored until spring.
Then it is bottled and sealed for complete fermentation
and saturation with carbon dioxide [1]. This method has
two disadvantages: it is difficult to control fermentation
when using spontaneous microflora and the finished
wine has a tendency to cloudiness.
In Russia, a similar method is used to produce
“Tsymlyanskoe Igristoe” red sparkling wine. It is also
based on subsequent fermentation of stuck must in
bottles, but this process may stop spontaneously and
result in varying contents of sugars, ethanol, and carbon
dioxide in the finished wines.
Hypothetically, the optimal yeast race should provide
young sparkling wines with the desired properties.
Most importantly, it should be suitable for primary
and secondary fermentation, have no yeast tones and
preserve the varietal aroma.

The yeast used in the production of bottled
sparkling wines must meet a number of requirements.
In particular, it must have autolytic and flocculating
power and be resistant to high ethanol concentration and
pressure, as well as low fermentation temperature and
pH [2, 3]. For this, yeast is preliminarily acclimatized
and fertilized with nitrogen compounds [4]. After
fermentation, when aging on yeast, the wine is saturated
with yeast autolysis products (e.g., amino acids) and
phenolic compounds (e.g., catechins, caffeic and gallic
acids in rosé wines) [5, 6]. The technology for young
sparkling wines excludes yeast aging, thus preserving
the original varietal aroma. Also, there is only one
fermentation process and therefore yeast does not need
to adapt.
We aimed to study the effect of yeast race on the
quality of base and young sparkling wines produced by
the bottle fermentation method.
STUDY OBJECTS AND METHODS
Our study objects were base and young sparkling
wines produced with various yeast races from Cabernet-
Sauvignon grapes grown on the South Coast of Crimea
in 2019. The grapes were processed in micro-vinification
conditions in line with the relevant standards and
guidelines. The mass concentration of sugars was
202 g/dm3 and titratable acids amounted to 10.0 g/dm3.
Must was fermented with glucose-sensitive, fructosesensitive,
S-sensitive, and killer factor yeast races. The
latter significantly increased the dominance of this
species during fermentation [7]. In total, we selected
five races from the Magarach Collection of Winemaking
Microorganisms (Table 1).
Wine-making. Rosé must was obtained by pressing
pulp on a basket press, yielding 50 daL per 1 ton
of grapes. Then it was sulfurized (75 mg/dm3 SO2),
sedimented at 15°C, and decanted. To obtain red must,
grapes were crushed on a roller crusher and destemmed,
with the pulp sulfurized (75 mg/dm3 SO2). The pulp and
must were fermented at 15°C. The pulp was fermented
(2/3 of sugars) and pressed, with the resulting must
fermented in separate tanks. At a residual sugar
concentration of 22–24 g/dm3, one part of each batch of
stuck must was bottled for champagnization, with the
other part fermented dry. After introducing bentonite
(0.2 g/dm3), the bottles were stoppered, stacked,
and stored at 12–14°C. After 60 days, the sediment
was reduced to the neck (remuage) and discharged
(degorgeage). The resulting rosé and red base wines met
the requirements of State Standard 32030-2013 “Table
wines and table winestocks. General specifications.”
The physicochemical parameters of the base and
sparkling wines were determined in accordance with the
current standards. Phenolic substances were measured
colorimetrically by the Folin-Ciocalteu reaction. Optical
characteristics were determined by measuring optical
density at 420 and 520 nm. The dynamic viscosity
was measured with a viscometer. Foaming properties
(maximum foam volume and time of foam break) were
determined according to Standard STO 01580301.015-
2017 “Table base wines for sparkling wines and drinks
saturated with carbon dioxide. Determination of
foaming properties.” A 200 cm3 sample of degasified
wine was poured in a 1 dm3 measuring cylinder.
Barbotage was carried out using a portable compressor
and a sprayer lowered to the bottom of the measuring
cylinder. Foaming took place at the same time. The
maximum foam volume was determined visually using
the cylinder scale, and the time of foam break was
measured with a timer. This method, as well as Mosalux,
provided an accurate determination of the wine’s
foaming properties [9].
Table 1 Yeast species used in making young sparkling wines
No. Race title Yeast species
(V. Kudryavtsev taxonomy)
Phenotype Properties
I-25 Cabernet 5 Saccharomyces vini Meyen, 1838 syn.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Kreger-van
Rij N.J.W., 1984)
Sensitive (S) Resistant to cold, SO2, alcohol, and acid (рН 2.8);
glucose-sensitive; does not form H2S
I-523 Bastardo
1965
Saccharomyces oviformis Osterwalder,
1924 syn. S. cerevisiae (Kreger-van
Rij N.J.W., 1984)
Sensitive (S) Resistant to SO2, alcohol, tannin and polyphenols;
fructose-sensitive
I-525 Sevastopolskaya
23
S. oviformis Osterwalder, 1924 syn. S. cerevisiae
(Kreger-van Rij N.J.W., 1984)
Sensitive (S) Resistant to cold, SO2, and alcohol; glucosesensitive;
does not form H2S
I-527 47-К S. vini Meyen, 1838 syn. S. cerevisiae
(Kreger-van Rij N.J.W., 1984)
Killer (К) Effective in fermenting non-sterile grape must; high
degree of protein hydrolysis; resistant to acid, SO2,
alcohol; forms H2S in small amounts; glucose-sensitive;
low iron sensitivity index [8]. Recommended
for table base wines for sparkling wines.
I-652 Odesskiy
Chernyi-
SD13
S. oviformis Osterwalder, 1924 syn. S.
cerevisiae (Kreger-van Rij N.J.W., 1984)
Sensitive (S) Strong ability to form alcohols, esters and lactones;
synthesizes β-phenylethanol and aliphatic alcohols;
enhances spicy tones in the aroma of base wines.
Recommended for red table wines with berry-spicy
aroma.
292
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Figure 1 Must fermentation with different yeast races for rosé
base wines
Figure 2 Must fermentation with different yeast races for red
base wines
0.98
1.01
1.04
1.07
1.10
0 10 20 30 40
Must density, g/cm3
Time period, days
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
0.98
1.01
1.04
1.07
1.10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Must density, g/cm3
Time period, days
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
green spicy
sweet
milky
honey, 0
7
14
21
28
35
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0 6
12
18
24
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
green fumy-0 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0.98
1.01
1.04
1.07
1.10
0 10 20 30 40
Must density, g/cm3
Time period, days
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
0.98
1.01
1.04
1.07
1.10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Must density, g/cm3
Time period, days
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
sweet
honey, 0 7
14
21
28
35
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0 6
12
18
24
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
green 0 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
Table 2 Organic acids, sugars, and ethanol contents in experimental base wine samples
Race title C T M S L A ТA Su Glu F Gly Ethanol,
g/dm3 vol. %
Rosé
Cabernet 5 0.35 4.04 3.15 1.51 0.09 0.21 9.4 0.26 0.42 3.22 7.80 12.41
Bastardo 1965 0.34 3.93 2.93 1.63 0.35 0.03 9.3 0.24 0.32 0.76 7.81 12.54
Sevastopolskaya 23 0.31 3.87 2.96 1.68 0.11 0.20 9.5 0.19 0.33 1.99 8.05 12.44
47-К 0.31 4.09 3.17 1.58 0.10 0.24 9.6 0.23 0.50 6.88 7.96 12.12
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 0.45 3.96 3.18 1.20 0.09 0.14 8.6 0.24 0.38 1.01 5.23 12.95
Red
Cabernet 5 1.08 2.11 0.41 1.62 1.14 0.27 5.2 0.65 0.25 0.06 8.04 11.41
Bastardo 1965 0.87 2.68 0.36 1.77 1.39 0.20 5.9 0.31 0.30 0.02 8.02 11.28
Sevastopolskaya 23 0.71 2.74 0.39 1.71 1.51 0.20 6.2 0.25 0.31 0.02 7.65 10.63
47-К 0.70 3.16 0.33 1.78 1.97 0.18 7.4 0.26 0.32 2.26 7.81 10.92
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 1.06 2.84 2.76 1.75 0.08 0.09 7.9 0.33 0.47 0.41 6.88 12.38
Where: C – citric, T – tartaric, M – malic, S - succinic, L – lactic, A – acetic, ТA – sum of titratable acids, Su – sucrose, Glu – glucose,
F – fructose, Gly – glycerol
Table 3 Physicochemical parameters of experimental base wines
Race title рН Еh Vmax,
cm3
tbr,
s
V., mm2/s TPh,
mg/dm3
MPh,
mg/dm3
PPh,
mg/dm3
C,
mg/dm3
I Т
Rosé
Cabernet 5 3.1 215 900 30 1.697 266 233 32 4 0.594 1.101
Bastardo 1965 3.1 214 800 28 1.684 286 238 48 4 0.607 1.010
Sevastopolskaya 23 3.1 214 920 30 1.684 269 233 36 6 0.630 1.007
47-К 3.1 214 950 31 1.723 275 231 44 4 0.607 1.000
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 3.1 214 1000 42 1.674 233 180 53 14 0.656 1.033
Red
Cabernet 5 3.6 180 1100 >300 1.640 911 535 376 183 0.855 0.611
Bastardo 1965 3.5 193 1250 >300 1.633 974 598 376 202 0.864 0.716
Sevastopolskaya 23 3.5 193 1250 >300 1.581 1027 609 418 207 0.964 0.563
47-К 3.4 199 1250 >300 1.620 826 503 323 188 0.963 0.573
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 3.1 203 1250 >300 1.692 1101 635 466 287 1.959 0.529
Where: Еh – value of redox potential, Vmax – max foam volume, tbr – time of foam break, V – value of dynamic viscosity, TPh – total content of
phenolic substances, MPh – content of monomeric fraction of phenolic substances, PPh – content of polymeric fraction of phenolic substances,
C – content of coloring agents, I – value of color intensity (D420+ D520), Т – value of color shade (D420/ D520)
293
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Table 4 Sensory evaluation of experimental base wines
Yeast race General characteristics of aroma and flavor Score
Rosé
Cabernet 5 Aroma – complex, berry.
Flavor – soft, pure, complete, varietal, with “spicy bitterness.”
7.76
Bastardo 1965 Aroma – neutral, with berry and fruit notes and passing “choking.”
Flavor – pure, complete, too fresh, plain.
7.67
Sevastopolskaya 23 Aroma – delicate, berry, with light notes of nightshade.
Flavor – fresh, well-formed, varietal.
7.75
47-К Aroma – subtle, berry-fruit, with spicy and cherry notes.
Flavor – complete, with residual sugars and inharmonious acidity.
7.70
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 Aroma – bright, complex, berry and fruit, with noes of nightshade.
Flavor – pure, fresh, harmonious, varietal.
7.83
Red
Cabernet 5 Aroma – bright, complex, berry and fruit, with noes of nightshade.
Flavor – soft, complete, harmonious, varietal.
7.81
Bastardo 1965 Aroma – mild, varietal, of berry direction.
Flavor – harmonious, complete, varietal, velvet.
7.78
Sevastopolskaya 23 Aroma – less expressed, berry, with light notes of nightshade.
Flavor – fresh, velvet.
7.77
47-К Aroma – mild, of berry direction, with notes of nightshade.
Flavor – complete, insufficiently velvet.
7.76
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 Aroma – bright, complex, berry, with notes of nightshade.
Flavor – deep, velvet, with long coffee and spicy finish.
7.82
Table 5 Physicochemical parameters of experimental young sparkling wines
Race title рН Еh Vmax,
cm3
tbr,
s
V,
mm2/s
TPh,
mg/dm3
MPh,
mg/dm3
PPh,
mg/dm3
C,
mg/dm3
I
Rosé
Cabernet 5 2.92 218 10.3 1.741 214 212 2 3 0.576 0.974
Bastardo 1965 2.92 217 10.0 1.735 195 186 9 4 0.510 0.927
Sevastopolskaya 23 2.92 218 10.4 1.715 247 235 12 5 0.579 0.989
47-К 2.95 218 10.4 1.735 210 210 0 2 0.512 0.961
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 2.93 217 9.6 1.735 217 211 6 6 0.499 0.974
Red
Cabernet 5 3.55 182 6.5 1.620 757 474 283 164 0.771 0.523
Bastardo 1965 3.33 197 8.4 1.633 916 524 392 170 0.790 0.681
Sevastopolskaya 23 3.33 198 8.0 1.594 847 540 307 171 0.928 0.540
47-К 3.23 202 9.0 1.620 794 498 296 152 0.908 0.574
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 3.18 205 8.7 1.601 1103 675 428 275 1.614 0.491
Where: Еh – value of redox potential, Vmax – max foam volume, tbr – time of foam break, V – value of dynamic viscosity, TPh – total content of
phenolic substances, MPh – content of monomeric fraction of phenolic substances, PPh – content of polymeric fraction of phenolic substances,
C – content of coloring agents, I – value of color intensity (D420+ D520), Т – value of color shade (D420/ D520)
Organic acids, residual sugars, and ethyl
alcohol were determined by HPLC using a Shimadzu
LC 20AD chromatograph (Japan) equipped with a
spectrophotometric detector. Sample separation was
performed on a Supelcogel C610H column (Supelco®,
Sigma-Aldrich, USA). We used a sorbent based on
sulfurized divinyl-polystyrene (column size 300×7.8,
sorbent granules less than 10.0 μm). An aqueous solution
of phosphoric acid (1 g/dm3) was used as an eluent.
Concentrations of substances were determined with a
detector at 210 nm by the retention time and the signal
quantity.
Total carbon dioxide content in sparkling
wines was determined according to Standard
STO 01580301.016–2017 “Drinks saturated with carbon
dioxide. Determination of mass concentration of carbon
dioxide by the modified volumetric method.” According
to this method, CO2, which evolved from wine under the
action of ultrasound, displaced the barrier fluid from the
graduated container. The volume of the displaced barrier
fluid corresponded to the volume of carbon dioxide
contained in the bottle with sparkling wine. The content
of related forms of carbon dioxide was calculated
according to A.A. Merzhanian method [10], based on
294
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Figure 3 Aromatic profile of rosé base wines on various yeast races
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
green fumy-0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
meadow vegetable green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0 5
10
15
20
25
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
40
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
green (fumy-0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
(grassy) vegetable
hay
milky
caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
green (grassy) hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
grassy) vegetable
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0 5
10
15
20
25
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
compote
vegetable dried fruit green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
the difference between the measured CO2 content and
the CO2 solubility at a certain pressure and ethanol
concentration. Sparkling properties were determined
according to Standard STO 01586301.022–2019
“Sparkling wines, carbonated wines, and carbonated
drinks. Determination of sparkling properties by
gravimetric method.” In particular, we measured the
СО2 desorption rate from the bottle of wine when
depressurizing to the atmospheric level.
Sensory evaluation of base and sparkling wines
followed State Standard 32051-2013 “Wine products.
Methods of Organoleptic Analysis,” ISO 5492:2008
“Sensory analysis – Vocabulary,” and ISO 11035:1994
“Sensory analysis – Identification and selection of
descriptors for establishing a sensory profile by a
multidimensional approach.” Sensory evaluation was
carried out by trained panelists on a 10-point system, by
quantifying the contribution of individual descriptors to
the composition of color, flavor, and aroma of wines. The
descriptors were selected in accordance with ISO 5492,
ISO 11035 and (Какое-то «и». Ссылки три. Что-то не
дописали) [11, 12, 13].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
At the first stage, we assessed the effects of different
yeast races on must fermentation (Figs. 1 and 2).
We found that the period of must fermentation using
the red method was 10–14 days shorter than that with the
white method. This was due to the thermal protective
effect of the pomace “cap” and the concentration of yeast
cells on the solid parts of pomace, increasing the contact
area for yeast and must sugars.
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
295
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Figure 4 Aromatic profile of red base wines on various yeast races
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
green (grassy) vegetable
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
compote
fruit tones
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
tones
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0 5
10
15
20
25
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
0 5
10
15
20
25
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
green 0
10
20
30
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
dried fruit tones
green (grassy) vegetable
hay
spicy
sweet
milky
honey, caramel
0 5
10
15
20
25
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
0
10
20
30
40
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
green (grassy)
0 5
10
15
20
25
30
35
meadow grassy
fruity
berry
fruit
compote
vegetable dried fruit tones
green (grassy)
hay
spicy
fumy-smoked
honey, Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
The fermentation of the rosé must (Fig. 1) was most
intensive on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race and
slowest on the Bastardo 1965 race. The red must (Fig. 2)
fermented faster on the Bastardo 1965 race and slower
on the 47-K race. A slight curvature in the density range
of 1.030 g/cm3 was associated with pulp pressing, which
slowed down the fermentation.
Next, we determined the physicochemical parameters
of the base wines (Tables 2 and 3).
Among the rosé base wines, the sample fermented on
the Bastardo 1965 race had the lowest amount of residual
sugars (glucose – 0.32 g/dm3, fructose – 0.76 g/dm3),
although its fermentation lasted longer than on the
other races (41 days). The minimum fructose content
in this sample confirmed the fructosophilic properties
of this culture. Sugar fermentation proceeded faster
(29 days) and more intensively with the Odesskiy
Chernyi-SD13 race, with a large volume fraction of
ethyl alcohol accumulated at the lowest glycerol content.
It indicated that this yeast race fermented a smaller
fraction of sugars by the glyceropyruvic path, which was
also confirmed by the lower contents of succinic, acetic,
and titratable acids. Malolactic fermentation did not take
place in the rosé base wine samples. The pH and Еh
values were practically the same.
The best foaming properties were shown by the
rosé base wines prepared on the Odesskiy Chernyi-
SD13 race (max. foam 1000 cm3), with the lowest values
(800 cm3) found in the wines on the Bastardo 1965 race.
In addition, we found an inverse correlation between the
maximum foam volume and the total content of phenolic
substances (K = –0.80). Noteworthily, the sample
296
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Figure 5 Flavor profile of rosé base wines on various yeast races
0
20
40
60
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
20
40
60
80
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
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50
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fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
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30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
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40
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bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
astringency velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
20
40
60
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
20
40
60
80
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
honey, 0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
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acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
10
20
30
40
50
astringency velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
berry
0
20
40
60
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
20
40
60
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
20
40
60
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
20
40
60
80
acid
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
velvetiness
hardness
prepared on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race contained
the smallest amount of phenolic substances and the
highest contents of polyphenols and coloring agents, as
well as the highest value of color intensity. The highest
dynamic viscosity was shown by the sample prepared
on the 47-K race. This was due to the concentration of
residual sugars (the correlation coefficient between
viscosity and fructose concentration was 0.97).
In the red base wines, the Bastardo 1965 race was
the fastest to ferment sugars, while the 47-K race was
the slowest. Moreover, the latter race did not ferment
about 2 g of fructose. As in the rosé samples, the
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race synthesized more alcohol
and less glycerin. Malolactic fermentation followed
alcoholic fermentation in all the samples, except for the
one fermented by the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race. It
decreased the Eh value and the concentrations of malic
and titratable acids, and increased the pH value and the
lactic acid content. In addition, lactic acid bacteria did
not utilize residual amounts of fructose in the sample
fermented on the 47-K race.
The values of foaming properties were high in all the
red base wines (1100–1250 cm3). The dynamic viscosity
was the highest in the sample fermented on the Odesskiy
Chernyi-SD13 race, correlating with the concentration
of ethyl alcohol (K = 0.98). This sample contained the
largest amount of phenolic substances (including their
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
297
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Figure 6 Flavor profile of red base wines on various yeast races
spicy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
astringency velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
spicy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
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40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
astringency velvetiness
hardness
0
10
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40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
spicy
spicy
fruit-berry
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
spicy
spicy
fruit-berry
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
fruit-berry
mineral
spicy
bitter
honey, candy
0
10
20
30
40
50
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
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20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
0
10
20
30
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
polymeric forms) and coloring agents, as well as the
highest color intensity. The parameter of color in all
the red base wines was less than unity, corresponding
to the values for young base wines. This indicated the
contribution of anthocyanins and brown condensation
products of phenolic substances to the color intensity.
The volume fractions of ethanol in the red base
wines were lower than in the rosé samples (on
average, by 1 vol. %). This might be due to the partial
evaporation of ethyl alcohol from the pomace “cap”
during fermentation.
The next stage of our study involved the sensory
evaluation of young base wines. Table 4 shows the
general characteristics of aroma and flavor, as well as
the panelists’ scores on a 10-point scale (minimum
7.5 points).
Of the rosé base wines, the sample prepared on the
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race was rated highest due to
its complex, bright aroma and harmonious flavor. The
Bastardo 1965 sample received the lowest score, mainly
due to the extraneous note in its aroma associated with
long post-fermentation. Among the red wines, the
sample prepared on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race
received the higher score due to its rich aroma and
velvety flavor.
While tasting, the panelists determined the main
descriptors for color and aroma (Fig. 3 and 4), as well as
flavor (Figs. 5 and 6). Red (67.5–87.5%) and violet (12.5–
32.5%) shades took part in the color composition of rosé
base wines. Red (60.5–65.0%), violet (29.5–35.0%), and
brown (0–7%) shades took part in the color composition
of red base wines.
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
298
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Table 6 Sensory evaluation of experimental young sparkling wines
Yeast race General characteristics of aroma and flavor Score
Rosé
Cabernet 5 Transparent. Color: light rosé. Bouquet: pure, varietal, berry with fruit tones.
Flavor: fresh, mild, berry with nightshade notes, well-saturated with СО2.
8.99
Bastardo 1965 Transparent. Color: light rosé. Bouquet: pure, of berry direction, with candy tones.
Flavor: fresh, harmonious, berry-candy, with piquant bitterness, well-saturated with СО2.
8.93
Sevastopolskaya 23 Transparent. Color: light rosé. Bouquet: berry-fruit.
Flavor: fresh, harmonious, of berry direction, well-saturated with СО2.
8.97
47-К Transparent. Color: light rosé. Bouquet: pure, berry-fruit.
Flavor: fresh, mild, plain, well-saturated with СО2.
8.90
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 Transparent. Color: light rosé. Bouquet: pure, fresh, with candy tones.
Flavor: pure, fresh, light, well-balanced, well-saturated with СО2.
9.03
Red
Cabernet 5 Transparent. Color: dark ruby. Bouquet: fresh, varietal, berry, with nightshade note.
Flavor: harmonious, varietal, well-formed, well-saturated with СО2.
8.99
Bastardo 1965 Transparent. Color: dark ruby. Bouquet: varietal, of berry direction, with light “choking.”
Flavor: fresh, full-bodied, tannin, with piquant bitterness, well-saturated with СО2.
8.91
Sevastopolskaya 23 Transparent. Color: dark ruby. Bouquet: pure, of berry-fruit direction, with morocco leather
noes. Flavor: fresh, velvet, with piquant bitterness, averagely saturated with СО2.
8.92
47-К Transparent. Color: dark ruby. Bouquet: varietal, fruit-berry, with light “choking.”
Flavor: mild, velvet, with light bitterness, averagely saturated with СО2.
8.87
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 Transparent. Color: dark ruby. Bouquet: pure, bright, varietal, berry-fruit direction.
Flavor – mild, well-balanced, fresh, full-bodied, tannin, well-saturated with СО2.
9.05
Table 7 Carbon dioxide contents and foaming properties of young sparkling wines
Race title Equilibrium
pressure of
СО2, kPa
СО2 content per bottle (0,75 dm3), g Weight ratio
of bound
СО2, %
Foaming properties
total in
bottle
gasiform
dissolved
bound maximum volume
of foam, cm3
time of foam
break, s
Rosé
Cabernet 5 610 8.233 0.195 7.026 1.012 12.28 660 112
Bastardo 1965 650 9.330 0.213 7.310 1.808 19.38 585 43
Sevastopolskaya 23 460 6.861 0.143 5.624 1.094 15.94 780 180
47-К 540 7.547 0.188 6.364 0.995 13.19 640 57
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 650 10.062 0.170 7.383 2.509 24.93 900 320
Red
Cabernet 5 810 10.520 0.284 8.800 1.435 13.64 820 > 300
Bastardo 1965 750 9.696 0.225 8.274 1.197 12.35 1200 > 300
Sevastopolskaya 23 810 10.611 0.336 8.892 1.383 13.04 1100 > 300
47-К 600 8.416 0.152 7.121 1.142 13.57 1000 > 300
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 790 10.245 0.337 8.517 1.392 13.59 1150 > 300
Berry tones in aroma and flavor are varietal features
of Cabernet-Sauvignon rosé and red base wines. The
strongest berry tones were observed in the samples
prepared on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 and 47-K races.
Fruit tones were significant contributors to the aromatic
composition of the remaining samples due to complex
esters forming during enzymatic processes during
fermentation [14, 15]. In addition to berry and fruit
tones, the red base wines featured fume-smoky tones
and those of dried fruits, which were most pronounced
in the 47-K sample. Vegetable notes (green pepper) were
identified in the Sevastopolskaya 23 sample, possibly
due to the influence of 3-isobutyl-2-methoxypyrazine
[16].
The flavor of rosé base wines was based on fruitand-
berry and acid descriptors. The sample prepared on
the Sevastopolskaya 23 race expressed honey and candy
hints, as well as light bitterness. The Cabernet 5, 47-K,
and Bastardo 1965 samples had distinct spicy notes.
The flavor of red base wines was based on the same
fruit-and-berry and acid descriptors, with additional
velvetiness, astringency, and tartness. Their astringency
could be associated with the content of polymeric forms
of phenolic substances, usually with an average degree
of polymerization of ten or more small anthocyanin
pigment derivatives (tetramers) [17]. The sample
developed on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 race had a
richer and more complex flavor.
299
Makarov A.S. et al. Foods and Raw Materials, 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 290–301
Table 8 Sparkling properties of young rosé wines on different
yeast races
Yeast race V1–300,
mg/min
Angle of deflection of
СО2 desorption curve, о
Cabernet 5 4,097 0,2347
Bastardo 1965 3,559 0,2039
Sevastopolskaya 23 3,662 0,2098
47-К 4,027 0,2307
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 3,358 0,1924
Where: V1–300 i s t he a verage С О2 desorption rate on the timespan
of 1–300 min
Figure 7 СО2 desorption from young rosé sparkling wines
prepared on different yeast races
mineral
spicy
astringency tartness
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
tartness
0
8
16
24
32
40
acid
bitter
fruit-berry
astringency tartness
velvetiness
hardness
1.0
1.3
1.6
1.9
2.2
0 100 200 300
Mass of evolved СО2, g
Time period, min
Cabernet 5 Bastardo 1965
Sevastopolskaya 23 47-К
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13
The physicochemical parameters of experimental
young sparkling wines are presented in Table 5.
The samples of young rosé sparkling wines
showed similar physicochemical characteristics. Their
fermentation process was complete. Their pH was lower
than in similar base wines, primarily due to a higher
mass concentration of titratable acids.
In young red wines produced on the Cabernet 5
race, alcoholic fermentation was followed by malolactic
fermentation, as evidenced by a decreased mass
concentration of titratable acids and an increased pH. We
found a correlation between the value of redox potential
(Eh) and the concentration of titratable acids in young
red sparkling and base wines. The correlation coefficient
was 0.939 and 0.957 for base and sparkling wines,
respectively. This indicated that malolactic fermentation
led to a decrease in Eh.
The wine produced on the Odesskiy Chernyi-
SD13 race contained the largest amount of phenolic
and coloring substances and had higher color intensity
compared to the other wines. This might be due to the
ability of this race to improve the extraction of phenolic
substances during pulp fermentation, with yeast
pectolytic enzymes producing a stronger effect on the
grape skin [18, 19].
Table 6 shows the results of the sensory evaluation of
young sparkling wines, as well as the panelists’ scores
on a 10-point scale (minimum 8.8 points)
The rosé wines had a distinct varietal berry aroma
with various notes. Higher scores were given to the
samples prepared on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13,
Cabernet 5, and Sevastopolskaya 23 yeast races,
primarily due to their balanced flavor. The red wines
also had a strong berry aroma with various notes. The
panelists gave higher scores to the samples prepared
on the Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13, Cabernet 5, and
Sevastopolskaya 23 yeast races, primarily due to their
pure aroma. The samples prepared on the 47-K and
Bastardo 1965 races had slight off-tones (H2S).
The samples of young sparkling wines were tested
for their foaming and sparkling properties, as well as
СО2 content and desorption (Tables 7, 8 and Fig. 7).
The best foaming properties were exhibited by
the young rosé sparkling wines prepared on the
Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 and Sevastopolskaya 23
races, as well as the young red sparkling wines on the
Bastardo 1965 and Odesskiy Chernyi-SD13 races.
The red wines showed a direct correlation between the
maximum foam volume and the polyphenol content
(K = 0.78). The excess CO2 pressure corresponded to
the standard rate (at least 300 kPa), ranging from 460
to 810 kPa. The СО2 content totaled 6.861–10.520 g in
a 0.75 dm3 bottle, depending on the concentration of
sugars and dissolved СО2 in the must with incomplete
fermentation when preparing a tirage mixture. The
weight ratio of bound СО2 ranged from 12.28 to 24.93%,
depending on the total СО2 content in the sample
and the peculiarities of fermentation on this yeast
race in the bottle. The red wine samples had similar
contents of bound СО2, compared to rosé wines, which
affected their sparkling properties. The correlation
coefficient between V1-300 and the weight ratio of
bound СО2 was –0.95. This confirmed the assumption
that higher contents of bound СО2 in sparkling
wines improve their sparkling properties [20–25].
The lowest СО2 desorption rate and angle of curve
deflection (hence the best sparkling properties) were
determined in the sample produced on the Odesskiy
Chernyi-SD13 race (Table 8, Fig. 7). Slightly higher СО2
desorption rates were also found in the samples on the
Bastardo 1965 and Sevastopolskaya 23 races.
CONCLUSION
Yeast races produce a significant effect on the
quality of base and young sparkling wines. Odesskiy
Chernyi-SD13 is the best race for rosé and red base
wines and young sparkling wines produced from
Cabernet-Sauvignon grown in the South Coast of
Crimea. This yeast race contributes to a pure varietal
aroma and a harmonious flavor (panelists score: 9.03–
9.05 points), as well as the best properties (maximum
foam volume: 900–1150 cm3, weight ratio of bound
СО2: 13.59–24.93%). The bottle method of making
wines from must with incomplete fermentation ensures
original products of high quality. This technology can
increase the production of domestic sparkling wines in
the crop year. It is especially suitable for small farms
since it does not require any complex equipment. We
plan to continue research in this area to make sure
that this type of products is included in the regulatory
standards.
CONTRIBUTION
A.S. Makarov supervised the research, edited the
manuscript, and formulated the conclusions. I.P. Lutkov
formulated the hypothesis, set the aim and objectives,
conducted the research, and wrote the manuscript.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank E. Slastye, V. Maksimovskaya,
N. Lutkova, and N. Shmigelskaya for their assistance
with the study.

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